The dependence of soil bulk density on penetration resistance, moisture content, soil organic carbon content and particle size distribution was investigated for Retisols of the Educational and Experimental Soil and Ecological Center of Lomonosov Moscow State University “Chashnikovo”. Penetration resistance was measured with a penetrologger at six key sites with different land-use types, in areas in front of three soil profiles. Soil samples for bulk density were taken from the same profiles using 100 cm³ cutting rings. The samples were subsequently analyzed for moisture content, organic carbon (by the Tyurin method), and particle-size distribution using a laser diffraction analyzer. Within the study, 24 regression models for predicting soil bulk density were developed and analyzed. The quality of these models varied; the coefficients of determination (R²) ranged from 0.23 to 0.89 and the root mean square error (RMSE) from 0.07 to 0.18 g×cm^–3. Based on the modelling results, the greatest contribution to predicting bulk density was made by organic carbon content, depth and penetration resistance, in descending order. Adding specific particle-size fractions to the model is more informative than using the principal components of particle-size fractions as predictors. The use of specific particle-size fractions is more informative than using principal components as predictors. In many models, field soil moisture proved to be an insignificant predictor for bulk density. Given the labour-intensive nature of determining a full set of predictors, models with a reduced set of predictors were proposed: 1) depth and penetration resistance; 2) organic carbon content and penetration resistance; and 3) organic carbon content alone. The data from the first of these models are automatically collected during the use of the penetrometer, making it convenient for monitoring surveys. The method has important limitations relating to the particle size distribution of soils and how this is determined. For example, it is impossible to take a top-down measurement of penetration resistance with a penetrologger in the presence of large boulders in the soil, as the measuring tool hits them and cannot be pushed into the underlying horizons. The use of regression equations in which particle-size distribution is determined by a method other than laser diffraction is incorrect. The choice of which particle-size fraction to use as a predictor should be based on a correlation analysis for each territory in question.

Information on natural variation in the soil bulk density values is an essential component in analyzing the uncertainty of organic matter reserves in biogeocenoses. The aim of this study was to assess the bulk density variation in a secondary birch-spruce forest in the Moscow region on sod-podzolic soils. Five test sites measuring 50×50 m were established on an area of approximately 2 ha. At each test site, a section and two semi-pits were established, in which soil density was determined at 10 cm vertical intervals using Kachinsky cutting rings with a volume of 100 cm3 in double replicates. Nested ANOVA was used to analyze the data, allowing for quantitative analysis of density variation at different distances (between sites and variation within sites between sections) and depths. The results showed that for the humus horizons themselves at a depth of 0-10 cm, the average density was 0.83 gcm‒3.It then increased with depth for the AE transitional horizons. The eluvial horizons were characterized by a density of about 1.50 gcm‒3 and occurred at a depth of 30‒40 cm. The density of the lower part of the profile varied from 1.65 to 1.85 gcm‒3. For the coefficient of variation, as for the standard deviation, a decrease in variation with depth is observed. The upper part of the profile is characterized by values of the coefficient of variation from 10 to 14%, and from a depth of 40 cm, the coefficient does not exceed 5%. The greatest contribution to density variation, 90%, at a depth from 0 to 30 cm is made by vertical soil heterogeneity. For individual 10-centimeter layers down to a depth of 30 cm, more than half of the dispersion is due to heterogeneity between pits at a distance of 10‒20 meters. The results of the work can be used to calculate the uncertainty of organic carbon stocks in the forest biogeocenoses of the southern taiga.